Early
methamphetamine
First synthesized in 1887 Germany,
amphetamine was for a long time, a drug in search of a
disease. Nothing was done with the drug, from its
discovery (synthesis) until the late 1920's, when it
was seriously investigated as a cure or treatment
against nearly everything from depression to
decongestion.
In the 1930's, amphetamine was marketed as Benzedrine
in an over-the-counter inhaler to treat nasal
congestion (for asthmatics, hay fever sufferers, and
people with colds). A probable direct reaction to the
Depression and Prohibition, the drug was used and
abused by non-asthmatics looking for a buzz. By 1937
amphetamine was available by prescription in tablet
form.
Methamphetamine, more potent and easy to make, was
discovered in Japan in 1919. The crystalline powder
was soluble in water, making it a perfect candidate
for injection. It is still legally produced in the
U.S., sold under the trade name Desoxyn.
During World War II, amphetamines were widely used to
keep the fighting men going (during the Viet Nam war,
American soldiers used more amphetamines than the rest
of the world did during WWII). In Japan, intravenous
methamphetamine abuse reached epidemic proportions
immediately after World War II, when supplies stored
for military use became available to the public.
In the United States in the 1950s, legally
manufactured tablets of both dextroamphetamine
(Dexedrine) and methamphetamine (Methedrine) became
readily available and were used non-medically by
college students, truck drivers, and athletes. As use
of amphetamines spread, so did their abuse.
Amphetamines became a cure-all for such things as
weight control to treating mild depression.
This pattern changed drastically in the 1960s with the
increased availability of injectable methamphetamine.
The 1970 Controlled Substances Act severely restricted
the legal production of injectable methamphetamine,
causing its use to decrease greatly.
Methamphetamine trafficking and abuse in the United
States have been on the rise over the past few years,
as indicated by investigative, seizure, price, purity,
and abuse data (see "trends" below). As a result, this
drug is having a devastating impact in many
communities across the nation. Although more common in
western areas of the country, this impact increasingly
is being felt in areas not previously familiar with
the harmful effects of this powerful stimulant.
Clandestine production accounts for almost all of the
methamphetamine trafficked and abused in the United
States. The illicit manufacture of methamphetamine can
be accomplished in a variety of ways, but is produced
most commonly using the ephedrine/pseudoephedrine
reduction method. Large-scale production of
methamphetamine using this method is dependent on
ready access to bulk quantities of ephedrine and
pseudoephedrine. During the past two years, several
bulk ephedrine seizures destined for Mexico focused
attention on the magnitude of ephedrine acquisition by
organized crime drug groups operating from Mexico and
in the United States, and set in motion an effort to
focus international attention on the ephedrine
diversion problem and to take action to prevent such
diversion.
Drug law enforcement efforts against clandestine
methamphetamine producers constitute a "cat and mouse"
game between efforts to cut off chemical supplies and
efforts to obtain them from non-regulated sources.
Past experience has demonstrated that methamphetamine
traffickers are relentless, flexible, and creative in
finding new ways to obtain chemicals by evading the
network of international controls that has been
established. The Federal Government currently is
preparing regulations to further reduce the diversion
of pharmaceutical products containing chemicals, such
as ephedrine and pseudoephedrine, that can be used to
produce illegal drugs. It has consulted with
corporations within the pharmaceutical industry to
develop a solution to the diversion problem that does
not unduly restrict the availability of these
chemicals for legitimate use.
Domestically, large-scale production of
methamphetamine is centered in California. In
addition, methamphetamine increasingly is produced in
Mexico and smuggled into the United States.
Methamphetamine laboratory operators often are
well-armed, and their laboratories occasionally are
booby-trapped and equipped with scanning devices
employed as security precautions. Weaponry, ranging
from single firearms to arsenals of high-powered
weapons and explosives, are commonly found at
laboratory sites. Not only are methamphetamine
laboratories used to manufacture illegal, often deadly
drugs, but the clandestine nature of the manufacturing
process and the presence of ignitable, corrosive,
reactive, and toxic chemicals at the sites have
resulted in explosions, fires, toxic fumes, and
irreparable damage to human health and to the
environment.
Traditionally, the suppliers of methamphetamine
throughout the United States have been outlaw
motorcycle gangs and numerous other independent
trafficking groups. Although these groups continue to
produce and distribute methamphetamine, organized
crime drug groups operating from Mexico currently
dominate wholesale methamphetamine trafficking in the
United States for several reasons: these organizations
established access to wholesale ephedrine sources of
supply on the international market; these
organizations are producing unprecedented quantities
of high-purity methamphetamine on a regular basis;
and, they already control well-established cocaine,
heroin, and marijuana distribution networks throughout
the western United States, enabling them to supply
methamphetamine to a large retail level market. Their
expansion into the methamphetamine trade has added a
new dimension to their role in the U.S. drug market
and has redefined the methamphetamine problem in the
United States. Presently, these organizations are
poised to supply methamphetamine to the rest of the
country in response to any increases in demand.
Trends in methamphetamine use
In
1997, there were reports in the West, Southwest, and
the South of methamphetamine and ephedrine as emerging
drugs. According to DEA sources, Mexican manufacturers
and distributors have replaced the outlaw motorcycle
groups which had produced methamphetamine supplies for
over twenty years. The new manufacturers are producing
large quantities of high purity methamphetamine on
both sides of the border, drawing on the legal supply
of the precursor chemicals on the Mexican side. The
price of methamphetamine had dropped significantly (to
approximately $3000/pound in Southern California)
until recent efforts to curtail ephedrine/pseudoephedrine
supplies produced a slight shortage in some areas and
a corresponding price increase. In Washington State,
sources report that the resultant price increase has
caused a number of methamphetamine users in that area
to switch to cocaine.
One Texas source cited a number of reports of adverse
effects of ephedrine and pseudoephedrine, a common
substance in a number of over the counter and/or
health food products. Ephedrine tablets can be
purchased in Mexico and are often seized at the border
or in other locations in transit to U.S.-based
manufacturers. Some of the ephedrine/pseudoephedrine
products readily available in Texas include 40 or 50
milligrams of ephedrine as well as substantial
quantities of caffeine. Adverse consequences of their
use include agitation, palpitations, and fainting from
the stimulant effect. Called "herbal ecstasy" in both
Texas and Southern California and touted as "safe" or
"legal" MDMA, it is reportedly available from some
health food stores or through mail order.
Methamphetamine continues to be popular in San
Francisco. The ethnographer from that area reports
that in addition to its use by young users who combine
it with heroin ("a meth speedball") it can also be
found in "biker's coffee," a combination of
methamphetamine and coffee popular among young, fairly
affluent urbanites. This is similar to the population
of users described by the Los Angeles source. In that
area, users are primarily snorting methamphetamine
rather than smoking it as "ice" or injecting it.
Methamphetamine: A Dangerous Drug, A Spreading Threat
Methamphetamine is a highly addictive drug that can be
manufactured by using products commercially available
anywhere in the United States. The chemicals used in
producing methamphetamine are extremely volatile, and
the amateur chemists running makeshift laboratories --
often in hotels or areas where children are present --
cause deadly explosions and fires. The by-products of
methamphetamine production are extremely toxic.
Methamphetamine traffickers display no concern about
environmental hazards when it comes to manufacturing
and disposing of methamphetamine and its by-products.
Source: SAMHSA, OAS, TEDS (Jan 1998)
The effects of methamphetamine on humans are profound.
SAMHSA is currently testing the effectiveness of
various treatment regimens for methamphetamine, an
addiction that is extremely difficult to treat. The
stimulant effects from methamphetamine can last for
hours, instead of minutes as with crack cocaine. Often
the methamphetamine user remains awake for days. As
the high begins to wear off, the methamphetamine user
enters a stage called "tweaking," in which he or she
is prone to violence, delusions, and paranoia. Many
methamphetamine users try to alleviate the effect of
the methamphetamine "crash" by buffering the effects
with other drugs such as cocaine or heroin. Like
heroin and cocaine, methamphetamine can be snorted,
smoked, or injected.
Source: SAMHSA, OAS, TEDS (Jan 1998)
Overall usage
The 1997 NHSDA estimated that 5.3 million Americans
(2.5 percent of the population) have tried
methamphetamine in their lifetime, up significantly
from the 1994 estimate of 1.8 million. The ADAM system
reports that methamphetamine use continues to be more
common in the western United States than in the rest
of the nation. Methamphetamine use, according to ADAM,
increased substantially in 1997, negating the progress
achieved in 1996. In San Diego, roughly 40 percent of
both male and female arrestees tested positive for
methamphetamine.
Source: SAMHSA, OAS, TEDS (Jan 1998)
Use among youth
The 1998 MTF survey asked 12th graders about the use
of crystal methamphetamine known as "ice" -- which is
smoked or burned in rock form. The survey found that
lifetime ice use -- which had leveled-off at 4.4
percent in 1997 after a four-year rise -- rose in 1998
to 5.7 percent. The perceived harmfulness of
methamphetamine among youth has also declined steadily
since 1992 -- when 61.9 percent of 12th graders
perceived "great risk" in trying "ice" once or twice
-- to 1998, when only 52.7 percent perceived great
risk.
Source: SAMHSA, OAS, TEDS (Jan 1998)
Availability
Methamphetamine is by far the most prevalent synthetic
controlled substance clandestinely manufactured in the
United States. In the West and Southwest, it is
increasingly significant as a drug of abuse: 52
percent of all those arrested in San Jose for drug
possession, for example, test positive for
methamphetamine. The Midwest has also seen an increase
in methamphetamine production, trafficking and
consequences. While the drug is not commonly found in
the East and Southeast an analysis of methamphetamine
treatment admissions as well as increased seizures
suggest that the use of the drug may be spreading
eastward. The number of methamphetamine laboratory
seizures reported to the Drug Enforcement
Administration (DEA) in 1997 increased dramatically,
to 1,431 from 879 in 1996. This reflects the
widespread proliferation in the manufacture,
trafficking, and use of the drug across the West and
Midwest and portions of the South. During 1997
methamphetamine prices nationwide ranged from $3,500
to $30,000 per pound, $400 to $2,800 per ounce, and 37
dollars to $200 per gram.
Source: SAMHSA, OAS, TEDS (Jan 1998)
In the same way as other narcotics like opium and
heroin during this time, cocaine also began to be used
as an active ingredient in a variety of "cure all"
tonics and beverages. In many of the tonics that drug
companies were producing at this time, cocaine would
be mixed with opiates and administered freely to old
and young alike. It wasn't until some years later that
the dangers of these drugs became apparent.
Grateful Acknowledgement Substance Abuse & Mental
Health Services Administration
